Analects of Confucius: passages on ritual
Ritual (禮/lǐ) is one of the most important themes in the Analects. It consists of a combination of elaborate ceremonies and unwritten rules of conduct that govern smooth social interactions and provide people with models of behavior and demeanor to emulate. The term is also translated as “rites”, “rules”, “rules of proprietary”, “rules of behavior”, “courtesy”, “manners”, “etiquette” or “ethics”.
Confucius was one of the leading members of a class of experts in ritual practices known as rujia (儒家). His knowledge of the subject was so deep that it stretched further back than the beginnings of the Zhou to the preceding Shang and Xia dynasties, and he was often requested by state rulers and members of the nobility to conduct ritual ceremonies. Indeed, the Chinese term for Confucianism is rujiao (儒教), which literally means the doctrine of the scholar/refined person.
Here is a collection of all the key passages in the Analects of Confucius on ritual plus links to related articles.
Related Reading
Analects of Confucius Book 1: Confucius and Youzi on ritual
Analects of Confucius Book 1: Confucius on ritual
Analects of Confucius Book 3: Confucius on ritual ceremonies
Analects Book 3: Confucius criticizes the Ji Family for three ritual violations
Analects of Confucius Book 1–5: eleven quotes on ritual from Confucius
Analects of Confucius Book 9: Confucius on ritual integrity
Analects of Confucius Book 6–10: five remarks on ritual from Confucius
Analects of Confucius Book 10 on ritual behavior: Confucius at court
Analects of Confucius Book 10 on ritual behavior: Confucius and food
Analects of Confucius Book 10 on ritual behavior: Confucius and dress
Analects of Confucius Book 10 on ritual behavior: Confucius at home
Analects Book 10 on ritual behavior: Confucius in his home village
Analects of Confucius Book 10–15: Confucius’s comments on ritual
Analects of Confucius Book 16 — Book 20: Confucius’s thoughts on ritual
Analects Book 17: Confucius crosses the line of ritual propriety
Analects on ritual behavior: preserving the purity of the mourning rites
Analects on ritual behavior: when Confucius saw someone in mourning dress
Analects of Confucius: Confucius on death
Confucius’s love of ritual: a blessing and a curse
Recommended Reading
Book of Rites, Liji: Bilingual Edition, English and Chinese; Legge
Confucius: The Secular As Sacred; Fingarette
These Bones Shall Rise Again: Selected Writings on Early China; David N. Keightley
Analects Book 1: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 2
有子曰：「禮之用，和為貴。先王之道，斯為美，小大由之，有所不行，知和而和，不以禮節之，亦不可行也。」
Youzi said: “A person who practices filial and fraternal devotion is unlikely to question the authority of their superiors. Such a person will never provoke disorder. A leader focuses on the root; once this takes hold the way appears. Filial and fraternal devotion is the root of goodness.”
Chapter 12
有子曰：「禮之用，和為貴。先王之道，斯為美，小大由之，有所不行，知和而和，不以禮節之，亦不可行也。」
Youzi said: “When practicing ritual, harmony matters most. This is what made the way of the ancient kings so admirable and inspired their every action, no matter how great or small. But they also knew where to draw the line: seeking harmony for its own sake without it being regulated by ritual won’t work.”
Chapter 13
有子曰：「信近於義，言可復也。恭近於禮，遠恥辱也。因不失其親，亦可宗也。」
Youzi said: “If your commitments conform to what is right, you will be able to keep your word. If your manners conform to ritual, you will be able to avoid shame and disgrace. Only if you associate with reliable people will you be successful.”
Chapter 15
子貢曰：「貧而無諂，富而無驕，何如？」子曰：「可也，未若貧而樂，富而好禮者也。」子貢曰：「詩云：『如切如磋，如琢如磨』，其斯之謂與？」子曰：「賜也，始可與言詩已矣，告諸往而知來者。」
Zigong said: “’Poor but not subservient; wealthy but not arrogant.’ What do you think of that?” Confucius said: “Not bad, but this would be better still: ‘Poor but content; wealthy but loves ritual.’” Zigong said: “In the Book of Songs it is said: ‘Like carving and polishing stones, like cutting and grinding gems.’ Is this not the same idea?” Confucius said: “Wonderful, Zigong! At last I can discuss the Book of Songs with you! Based on what I’ve already said, you can work out what’s coming next!”
Analects Book 1: Links
Book 1, Chapter 2
Book 1, Chapter 12
Book 1, Chapter 13
Book 1, Chapter 15
Analects Book 2: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 3
子曰：「道之以政，齊之以刑，民免而無恥；道之以德，齊之以禮，有恥且格。」
Confucius said: “If you lead through laws and regulations and maintain order through punishments, people will avoid them but won’t develop a sense of shame. If you lead through virtue and keep them in line with ritual, they will develop a sense of shame and unite behind you.”
Chapter 5
孟懿子問孝。子曰：「無違。」樊遲御，子告之曰：「孟孫問孝於我，我對曰，『無違。』」樊遲曰：「何謂也？」子曰：「生，事之以禮；死，葬之以禮，祭之以禮。」
Meng Yizi asked Confucius about filial devotion. Confucius said: “Never disobey.” While Fan Chi was driving him in his chariot, Confucius told him: “Meng Yizi asked me about filial devotion and I replied: ‘Never disobey.’” Fan Chi asked: “What does that mean?” Confucius replied: “When your parents are alive, serve them according to ritual. When they die, bury them according to ritual and make sacrifices to them according to ritual.”
Chapter 23
子張問：「十世可知也？」子曰：「殷因於夏禮，所損益可知也；周因於殷禮，所損益可知也。其或繼周者，雖百世，可知也。」
Zizhang asked: “Can we predict the future ten generations from now?” Confucius said: “The Yin Dynasty adopted the ritual of the Xia Dynasty; we know what was dropped and what was added. The Zhou Dynasty borrowed from the ritual of the Yin Dynasty: we know what was dropped and what was added. If the Zhou Dynasty has successors, we know what they will be like, even a hundred generations from now.”
Analects Book 2: Links
Book 2, Chapter 3
Book 2, Chapter 5
Book 2, Chapter 23
Analects Book 3: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 1
孔子謂季氏，「八佾舞於庭，是可忍也，孰不可忍也？」
When he heard that the head of the Ji Family used eight rows of dancers to perform in the ceremonies at his ancestral temple, Confucius commented: “If he is capable of that, what isn’t he capable of?”
Chapter 2
三家者以雍徹。子曰：「『相維辟公，天子穆穆』，奚取於三家之堂？」
When the Three Families had the Yong ode performed while the ceremonial vessels were being removed at the end of their ancestral sacrifices, Confucius said: “‘The lords are in attendance, the son of heaven sits solemnly on his throne.’ How can such words be used in the halls of the Three Families?”
Chapter 3
子曰：「人而不仁，如禮何？人而不仁，如樂何？」
Confucius said: “If someone has no goodness, what can they have to do with ritual? If someone has no goodness, what can they have to do with music?”
Chapter 4
林放問禮之本。子曰：「大哉問！禮，與其奢也，寧儉；喪，與其易也，寧戚。」
Lin Fang asked: “What is the essence of ritual?” Confucius said: “That’s a big question! For festive ceremonies, simplicity is better than extravagance; for funerals, genuine grief is better than excessive formality.”
Chapter 6
季氏旅於泰山，子謂冉有曰：「女弗能救與？」對曰：「不能。」子曰：「嗚呼！曾謂泰山不如林放乎？」
The Ji Family was setting off to carry out a sacrifice on Mount Tai. Confucius said to Ran Qiu: “Can you not stop this?” Ran Qiu replied: “I cannot.” Confucius said: “This is outrageous! Can it really be true that the spirit of Mount Tai has even less knowledge of ritual than Lin Fang?”
Chapter 7
子曰：「君子無所爭，必也射乎！揖讓而升，下而飲。其爭也君子。」
Confucius said: “A leader does not engage in competition. But if you can’t avoid it, you should practice archery. You bow and exchange courtesies with your opponent before entering the range and enjoy drinks with him after leaving it. Even when engaged in competition, you remain a leader.”
Chapter 8
子夏問曰：「巧笑倩兮，美目盼兮，素以為絢兮。何謂也？」子曰：「繪事後素。」曰：「禮後乎？」子曰：「起予者商也！始可與言詩矣。」
Zixia asked: “What do these verses mean: ‘Ah, the lovely dimples of her artful smile! Ah, the black and white of her beautiful eyes! It’s on plain white silk that colors sparkle.’” Confucius said: “Painting comes after plain white silk.” Zixia said: “Is ritual also something that comes afterwards?” Confucius said: “You’ve opened up my eyes to the true meaning of these verses! It’s only with a man like you that I can discuss the Book of Songs!”
Chapter 9
子曰：「夏禮，吾能言之，杞不足徵也；殷禮，吾能言之，宋不足徵也。文獻不足故也。足，則吾能徵之矣。」
Confucius said: “I could talk about Xia Dynasty ritual, but the state of Qi hasn’t preserved sufficient evidence. I could talk about Yin Dynasty ritual, but the state of Song hasn’t preserved sufficient evidence. There aren’t enough written records and learned men; if there were, I could obtain evidence from them.”
Chapter 10
子曰：「禘自既灌而往者，吾不欲觀之矣。」
Confucius said: “Once the first libation has been performed at the sacrifice to the great imperial ancestor, I don’t want to watch the rest of the ceremony.”
Chapter 11
或問禘之說。子曰：「不知也。知其說者之於天下也，其如示諸斯乎！」指其掌。
When someone asked Confucius to explain the meaning of the sacrifice to the great imperial ancestor, he replied: “Whoever knows that would rule the world as easily as I can place this here.” Then he pointed his finger towards the palm of his hand.
Chapter 12
祭如在，祭神如神在。子曰：「吾不與祭，如不祭。」
Sacrifice requires presence: you should sacrifice to the spirits as if they are there. Confucius said: “If I’m not fully present at the sacrifice, it’s as if I didn’t attend the sacrifice at all.”
Chapter 15
子入太廟，每事問。或曰：「孰謂鄹人之子知禮乎？入太廟，每事問。」子聞之，曰：「是禮也。」
Whenever Confucius visited the Grand Ancestral Temple, he asked about everything that was happening there. Someone said: “Who said this son of a man from Zou is an expert on ritual? When he visits the Grand Ancestral Temple, he has to ask about everything that’s happening.” Hearing this, Confucius said: “Exactly, this is ritual.”
Chapter 17
子貢欲去告朔之餼羊。子曰：「賜也！爾愛其羊，我愛其禮。」
Zigong wished to do away with the sacrifice of a live sheep for the ceremony welcoming the new moon. Confucius said: “You love the sheep; I love ritual.”
Chapter 18
子曰：「事君盡禮，人以為諂也。」
Confucius said: “When you serve your lord in full accordance with ritual, people regard you as a sycophant.”
Chapter 19
定公問：「君使臣，臣事君，如之何？」孔子對曰：「君使臣以禮，臣事君以忠。」
Duke Ding asked: “How should a lord treat his ministers? How should ministers serve their lord?” Confucius replied: “A lord should treat his ministers in accordance with ritual; ministers should serve their lord with loyalty.”
Chapter 22
子曰：「管仲之器小哉。」或曰：「管仲儉乎？」曰：「管氏有三歸，官事不攝，焉得儉？然則管仲知禮乎？」曰：「邦君樹塞門，管氏亦樹塞門。邦君為兩君之好，有反坫，管氏亦有反坫。管氏而知禮，孰不知禮？」
Confucius said: “Guan Zhong had his limitations.” Someone objected: “Do you mean that Guan Zhong wasn’t frugal?” Confucius replied: “Guan Zhong had three households, each one staffed by a huge retinue. How could he be called frugal?” “But didn’t he know ritual?” “Even though only the ruler of a state can place a screen to mask the view of his gate, he also had one installed. Even though only the ruler of a state can use a special stand to place his inverted cup on when meeting with another ruler, Guan Zhong had one too. If you say Guan Zhong knew ritual, then who doesn’t know it?”
Chapter 26
子曰：「居上不寬，為禮不敬，臨喪不哀，吾何以觀之哉？」
Confucius said: “How can I bear to even contemplate someone who lacks tolerance when in high office, reverence when performing ritual, and grief when in mourning?”
Analects Book 3: Links
Book 3, Chapter 1
Book 3, Chapter 2
Book 3, Chapter 3
Book 3, Chapter 4
Book 3, Chapter 6
Book 3, Chapter 7
Book 3, Chapter 8
Book 3, Chapter 9
Book 3, Chapter 10
Book 3, Chapter 11
Book 3, Chapter 12
Book 3, Chapter 15
Book 3, Chapter 17
Book 3, Chapter 18
Book 3, Chapter 19
Book 3, Chapter 22
Book 3, Chapter 26
Analects Book 4: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 13
子曰：「能以禮讓為國乎，何有！不能以禮讓為國，如禮何！」
Confucius said: “If a ruler is able to govern a state by observing ritual and showing deference, what more does he need to do? If a ruler fails to accomplish this, what use is ritual to him?”
Analects Book 4: Links
Book 4, Chapter 13
Analects Book 6: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 26
子曰：「君子博學於文，約之以禮，亦可以弗畔矣夫！」
Confucius said: “A leader who expands their learning through culture and keeps their behavior in check through ritual is unlikely to go wrong.”
Analects Book 6: Links
Book 6, Chapter 27
Analects Book 7: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 9
子食於有喪者之側，未嘗飽也。子於是日哭，則不歌。
When Confucius dined with someone in mourning, he never ate his fill. On a day when he had been weeping, Confucius never sang.
Chapter 17
子所雅言，詩、書、執禮，皆雅言也。
Occasions when Confucius used standard pronunciation: when reciting the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents, and when carrying out ritual ceremonies. On all these occasions, he used standard pronunciation.
Chapter 30
陳司敗問昭公知禮乎，孔子曰：「知禮。」孔子退，揖巫馬期而進之曰：「吾聞君子不黨，君子亦黨乎？君取於吳，為同姓，謂之吳孟子。君而知禮，孰不知禮？」巫馬期以告。子曰：「丘也幸，苟有過，人必知之。」
The Minister of Justice of Chen asked: “Did Duke Zhao understand ritual?” Confucius said: “Yes, he understood ritual.” Confucius withdrew. With a bow, the minister invited Wuma Qi to come forward and said to him: “I’ve heard it said that a true leader is never biased. But isn’t your master biased after all? The duke took a wife from the state of Wu; but because she had the same family name, he called her Wu Mengzi. If the duke understood ritual, who doesn’t understand it?” Wuma Qi reported this to Confucius. Confucius said: “I’m fortunate indeed: whenever I make a mistake, there’s always someone on hand to let me know about it.”
Analects Book 7: Links
Book 7, Chapter 9
Book 7, Chapter 17
Book 7, Chapter 30
Analects Book 8: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 2
子曰：「恭而無禮則勞，慎而無禮則葸，勇而無禮則亂，直而無禮則絞。君子篤於親，則民興於仁。故舊不遺，則民不偷。」
Confucius said: “Reverence unregulated by ritual descends into indifference; cautiousness unregulated by ritual descends into timidity; boldness unregulated by ritual descends into disorder; frankness unregulated by ritual descends into hurtfulness. If a leader is devoted to their family, the people are inclined towards goodness; if a leader doesn’t forget about their old friends, the people will not shirk their obligations to others.”
Chapter 8
子曰：「興於詩，立於禮，成於樂。」
Confucius said: “Find inspiration with the Book of Songs; build character with ritual; achieve perfection with music.”
Analects Book 8: Links
Book 8, Chapter 2
Book 8, Chapter 8
Analects Book 9: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 3
子曰：「麻冕，禮也。今也純儉，吾從眾。拜下，禮也。今拜乎上，泰也，雖違眾，吾從下。」
Confucius said: “According to ritual, the ceremonial cap should be made of hemp; these days it’s made of silk. This is more economical and I follow the general practice. According to ritual, you should make your bow at the bottom of the steps; nowadays people make their bow at the top of the steps. This is arrogant, and even though it goes against the general practice I make my bow at that bottom of the steps.”
Chapter 10
子見齊衰者，冕衣裳者，與瞽者見之，雖少必作，過之必趨。」
Whenever Confucius saw someone in mourning dress, a grandee in ceremonial robes, or a blind person, he would always rise to his feet even if they were younger than him and quicken his step when he passed by them.
Chapter 11
顏淵喟然嘆曰：「仰之彌高，鑽之彌堅，瞻之在前，忽焉在後！夫子循循然善誘人，博我以文，約我以禮。欲罷不能，既竭吾才，如有所立，卓爾。雖欲從之，末由也已！」
Yan Hui said with a heavy sigh: “The more I contemplate it, the higher it seems; the deeper I probe it, the harder it becomes; when I catch a glimpse of it in front of me, it’s suddenly behind me. Our master knows how to guide people skillfully and methodically. He broadens my mind with culture and restrains me with ritual. Even if I wanted to stop, I could not. Just as all my talents are exhausted, there seems to be something new towering above me. But although I long to follow it, I can’t find a way to it.”
Chapter 12
子疾病，子路使門人為臣，病間曰：「久矣哉，由之行詐也！無臣而為有臣，吾誰欺？欺天乎？且予與其死於臣之手也，無寧死於二三子之手乎？且予縱不得大葬，予死於道路乎？」
Confucius was seriously ill. Zilu had his followers act as if they were retainers of a lord. When his illness went into remission, Confucius said: “Zilu, this deception has lasted long enough. Who do I deceive with these bogus retainers? Do I deceive heaven? Rather than die among retainers, I would prefer to die in the arms of my followers. I may not receive a grand funeral, but I’ll hardly die by the roadside.”
Chapter 15
子曰：「吾自衛反魯，然後樂正，雅頌，各得其所。」
Confucius said: “It was only after I returned to Lu from Wei that I revised the Book of Music and put the Court Songs and Sacrificial Hymns in the proper order.”
Chapter 16
子曰：「出則事公卿，入則事父兄，喪事不敢不勉，不為酒困，何有於我哉！」
Confucius said: “Serving the duke and his ministers at court; serving my elders at home; mourning the dead with proper reverence; not being troubled by drink: how could I find any of these things difficult?”
Analects Book 9: Links
Book 9, Chapter 3
Book 9, Chapter 10
Book 9, Chapter 11
Book 9, Chapter 12
Book 9, Chapter 15
Book 9, Chapter 16
Analects Book 10: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 1
孔子於鄉黨，恂恂如也，似不能言者。其在宗廟朝廷，便便言，唯謹爾。
When Confucius was in his home village, he was unassuming and warm as if at a loss for words. When he was in the ancestral temple or at court he spoke with eloquence but due caution.
Chapter 2
朝與下大夫言，侃侃如也；與上大夫言，誾誾如也。君在，踧踖如也，與與如也。
When he was at court chatting with officials in the lower ranks, he was genial; when he was chatting with officials in the upper ranks, he was direct but respectful. When the ruler was present, he was reverent but composed.
Chapter 3
君召使擯，色勃如也，足躩如也。揖所與立，左右手，衣前後，襜如也。趨進，翼如也。賓退，必復命，曰：「賓不顧矣。」
When the ruler instructed him to welcome guests to court, he assumed a serious expression on his face and walked at a rapid pace. He clasped his hands in front of his chest and bowed towards those standing beside him, turning to the left and the right, and made sure that his gown flowed backwards and forwards in perfect rhythm with the movements of his body. He approached the guests in quick, small steps, his sleeves fluttering like the wings of a bird. After seeing off the guests, he always returned to announce: “The guests have gone.”
Chapter 4
入公門，鞠躬如也，如不容。立不中門，行不履閾。過位，色勃如也，足躩如也，其言似不足者。攝齊升堂，鞠躬如也，屏氣似不息者。出，降一等，逞顏色，怡怡如也；沒階趨進，翼如也；復其位，踧踖如也。
When entering the gate of the duke’s palace, he bowed his head respectfully as if it were not high enough. He never paused in the middle of the gateway, nor did he step on the threshold. When he passed in front of the duke’s throne, he adopted a serious expression on his face, quickened his step, and showed great reluctance to speak. When he lifted up the hem of his gown in preparation for walking up the steps of the audience hall, he inhaled deeply as if he didn’t dare to breathe. On leaving, after descending the first step, an expression of ease enveloped his face. When he reached the bottom step, he walked swiftly, as if on wings. On returning to his original position, he assumed a respectful and cautious demeanor once again.
Chapter 5
執圭，鞠躬如也；如不勝。上如揖，下如授，勃如戰色，足縮縮如有循。享禮有容色，私覿愉愉如也。
When carrying a jade tablet, he bowed as if it was too heavy to lift. When he held it high, he looked as if he was going to give a greeting; when he held it low he looked as if he was going to make an offering. He adopted a solemn expression as if he was going off into battle, and he walked in short measured steps as if he was following a straight line. When participating in a ritual ceremony, he looked dignified. When in a private meeting, he looked happy and relaxed.
Chapter 6
君子不以以紺緅飾，紅紫不以為褻服；當暑，袗絺綌，必表而出之。緇衣羔裘，素衣麑裘，黃衣狐裘。褻裘長，短右袂。必有寢衣，長一身有半。狐貉之厚以居。去喪無所不佩。非帷裳，必殺之。羔裘玄冠，不以弔。吉月，必朝服而朝。
A leader doesn’t wear purple or maroon for the embroidered borders on his gown; he doesn’t use red or purple either for casual wear. During the summer, he wears a fine or coarse linen singlet, but never goes out without wearing an undergarment beneath it. He wears a black robe over a lambskin coat; a white robe over a fawn fur coat; and a yellow robe over a fox fur coat. His casual fur robes are long and have a shorter right sleeve. His nightgown is very long. He uses thick furs such as fox and badger as cushions. Except when he is in mourning, he can wear any type of adornment ornament on his girdle. Apart from his ceremonial robes, the layers of his other robes are cut to different lengths. At funerals, he doesn’t wear lambskin coats or black caps. On the day of the Auspicious Moon Ceremony, he attends court dressed in full court attire.
Chapter 7
齊，必有明衣布。齊，必變食。居，必遷坐。
During periods of purification, he wore a plain robe made of coarse linen. During periods of purification, he simplified his diet and did not sit in his usual place when at home.
Chapter 8
食不厭精，膾不厭細。食饐而餲，魚餒而肉敗不食，色惡不食，臭惡不食，失飪不食，不時不食，割不正不食，不得其醬不食。肉雖多，不使勝食氣。惟酒無量，不及亂。沽酒，市脯，不食。不撤薑食。不多食。祭於公，不宿肉。祭肉，不出三日；出三日，不食之矣。食不語，寢不言。雖疏食，菜羹，瓜祭，必齊如也。
He didn’t eat too much finely milled rice and finely cut meat. If the food was rotten or rancid, if the fish wasn’t fresh, and if the meat was spoiled, he didn’t eat it. If the food was off-color, he didn’t eat it. If it smelled bad, he didn’t eat it. If it was undercooked, he didn’t eat it. If it wasn’t served at the proper time, he didn’t eat it. If it wasn’t butchered properly, he didn’t eat it. If it wasn’t served in its proper sauce, he didn’t eat it. Even if there was plenty of meat, he didn’t eat more meat than rice. As for liquor, however, there was no limit as long as he remained sober. He didn’t consume liquor or meat bought from the market. He was never without ginger when he ate, but used it only in moderation.
Chapter 9
祭於公，不宿肉。祭肉，不出三日；出三日，不食之矣。
After assisting his duke at a sacrificial ceremony, he didn’t keep the meat bestowed on him overnight. After carrying out a family sacrificial ceremony, he didn’t keep the meat for more than three days. After the third day, he didn’t eat it.
Chapter 10
食不語，寢不言。
When eating, he did not talk. When retiring to bed, he did not speak.
Chapter 11
雖疏食，菜羹，瓜祭，必齊如也。
Even if the food only consisted of coarse rice or vegetable soup, he made a sacrificial offering with the same level of respect as when he was fasting.
Chapter 12
席不正不坐。
He didn’t sit on a mat unless it was straight.
.
Chapter 13
鄉人飲酒，杖者出，斯出矣。
When the villagers were drinking together, he didn’t leave until the elders had departed.
Chapter 14
鄉人儺，朝服而立於阼階。
When the villagers carried out the ceremony to exorcize pestilent spirits and ghosts, he put on his court dress and stood on the eastern steps.
Chapter 15
問人於他邦，再拜而送之。
When sending his greetings to someone in another state, he would bow twice before sending the messenger on his way.
Chapter 16
康子饋藥，拜而受之，曰：「丘未達，不敢嘗。」
When Ji Kangzi sent him some medicine, Confucius bowed as he accepted the gift but said: “Since I don’t know what this substance is, I dare not taste it.”
Chapter 18
君賜食，必正席先嘗之。君賜腥，必熟而薦之。君賜生，必畜之。侍食於君，君祭先飯。
When his ruler sent him a gift of pre-cooked food, he straightened his mat and was the first person to taste it. When his ruler sent him a present of raw meat, he cooked it and made an offering to his ancestors. When his ruler gave him a livestock, he reared it. When dining with his ruler, he was the first one to taste the food after the ruler had performed the sacrificial offering.
Chapter 19
疾君視之，東首，加朝服拖紳。
When he fell ill and his ruler came to visit him, he had himself laid with his head facing the east and his body covered by his court dress with a sash laid across it.
Chapter 20
君命召，不俟駕行矣。
Whenever his ruler summoned him, he would set off without waiting for the horses to be harnessed to his carriage.
Chapter 21
入大廟，每事問。
Whenever he visited the Grand Ancestral Temple, he asked about everything that was happening there.
Chapter 22
朋友死，無所歸，曰：「於我殯。」
When a friend died and there was no one to take care of his funeral, he said: “Let me look after it.”
Chapter 23
朋友之饋，雖車馬，非祭肉，不拜。
When receiving a gift from a friend, he wouldn’t bow even if it was something as valuable as a horse and carriage. The only gift he would bow for was one of sacrificial meat.
Chapter 24
寢不尸，居不容。
In bed, he didn’t lie stiffly like a corpse; at home, he was informal and relaxed.
Chapter 25
見齊衰者，雖狎必變。見冕者與瞽者，雖褻必以貌。凶服者式之；式負版者，有盛饌，必變色而作。迅雷風烈必變。
When he saw someone in mourning clothes, he adopted a solemn expression on his face and remained distant even if he knew them well. When he saw someone wearing a ceremonial cap or a blind person, he was courteous even if he was familiar with them. When he came across someone in mourning garments while riding in his carriage, he leaned over the stanchion to greet them; he would do the same when he encountered someone carrying official documents. When he was served rich delicacies at a banquet, he adopted a gracious expression on his face and rose to his feet to show his appreciation. When he heard a sudden clap of thunder or a ferocious wind an awe-struck expression came over his face.
Chapter 26
升車，必正立執綏。車中不內顧，不疾言，不親指。
Before mounting his carriage, he stood straight and grasped the hand strap. Once in the carriage, he didn’t turn to look back, talk loudly, or point with his finger.
Analects Book 10: Links
Book 10, Chapter 1
Book 10, Chapter 2
Book 10, Chapter 3
Book 10, Chapter 4
Book 10, Chapter 5
Book 10, Chapter 6
Book 10, Chapter 7
Book 10, Chapter 8
Book 10, Chapter 9
Book 10, Chapter 10
Book 10, Chapter 11
Book 10, Chapter 12
Book 10, Chapter 13
Book 10, Chapter 14
Book 10, Chapter 15
Book 10, Chapter 16
Book 10, Chapter 18
Book 10, Chapter 19
Book 10, Chapter 20
Book 10, Chapter 21
Book 10, Chapter 22
Book 10, Chapter 23
Book 10, Chapter 24
Book 10, Chapter 25
Book 10, Chapter 26
Analects Book 11: Passages on Ritual
Book 11
Chapter 1
子曰：「先進於禮樂，野人也；後進於禮樂，君子也。如用之，則吾從先進。」
Confucius said: “Those who learn ritual and music before taking up an official position come from the common people; those who learn ritual and music after taking up an official position come from the nobility. If I were to employ them, I would employ the former.”
Chapter 8
顏淵死，顏路請子之車以為之 。子曰：「才不才，亦各言其子也。鯉也死，有棺而無 ；吾不徒行，以為之 ，以吾從大夫之後，不可徒行也。」
When Yan Hui died, his father Yan Lu asked Confucius if he could sell his carriage so that he could pay for an outer coffin for his son. Confucius said: “Talented or not, a son is a son. When my son Li died, he was buried in an inner coffin but there was no outer coffin. I wouldn’t go on foot in order to give him one because it wasn’t proper for me as a former minister to go on foot.”
Chapter 10
顏淵死，子哭之慟。從者曰：「子慟矣！」曰：「有慟乎！非夫人之為慟而誰為！」
When Yan Hui died, Confucius wailed bitterly with grief. His followers said: “Master, such grief is excessive.” Confucius said: “Is it excessive? If I don’t grieve for this man, who else should I grieve for?”
Chapter 11
顏淵死，門人欲厚葬之，子曰：「不可。」門人厚葬之。子曰：「回也，視予猶父也，予不得視猶子也。非我也，夫二三子也。」
When Yan Hui died, his fellow followers wanted to give him a grand burial. Confucius said: “This isn’t right.” When the followers gave him a grand burial, Confucius said: “Yan Hui treated me like a father, but I was not given the chance to treat him like a son. This is not my fault, but yours, my friends.”
Chapter 26
子路、曾皙、冉有、公西華侍坐。子曰：「以吾一日長乎爾，毋吾以也。居則曰：「不吾知也！」如或知爾，則何以哉？」子路率爾而對曰：「千乘之國，攝乎大國之間，加之以師旅，因之以饑饉，由也為之，比及三年，可使有勇，且知方也。」夫子哂之。「求，爾何如？」對曰：「方六七十，如五六十，求也為之，比及三年，可使足民；如其禮樂，以俟君子。」「赤，爾何如？」對曰：「非曰能之，願學焉！宗廟之事，如會同，端章甫，願為小相焉。」「點，爾何如？」鼓瑟希，鏗爾，舍瑟而作。對曰：「異乎三子者之撰。」子曰：「何傷乎？亦各言其志也。」曰：「莫春者，春服既成；冠者五六人，童子六七人，浴乎沂，風乎舞雩，詠而歸。」夫子喟然嘆曰：「吾與點也！」三子者出，曾皙後。曾皙曰：「夫三子者之言何如？」子曰：「亦各言其志也已矣！」曰：「夫子何哂由也？」曰：「為國以禮，其言不讓，是故哂之。」「唯求則非邦也與？」「安見方六七十，如五六十，而非邦也者。」「唯赤，非邦也與？」「宗廟會同，非諸侯而何？赤也為之小，孰能為之大！」
Zilu, Zeng Dian, Ran Qiu, and Gongxi Chi were sitting with Confucius. Confucius said: “Forget for a moment that I’m your elder. You often say: ‘Nobody recognizes our talents.’ But if you were given the opportunity, what would you wish to do?”
Zilu eagerly replied first: “Give me a middle-sized state wedged between powerful neighbors that is under attack from invading armies and gripped by drought and famine. If I were to govern it, within three years I would give its people courage and set them in the right direction.”
Confucius smiled at him: “Ran Qiu, what about you?”
Ran Qiu replied: “If I was allowed to run a territory of sixty or seventy or, say, fifty to sixty li, within three years I would secure the prosperity of its people. As for ritual and music, they would have to wait for a true leader to take over.”
“Gongxi Chi, what about you?”
“I’m not saying that I would be able to do this, but I would like to try: in the ceremonies at the Grand Ancestral Temple, such as a diplomatic conference, wearing a ceremonial cap and robes, I would like to act as a junior official.”
“And what about you, Zeng Dian?” Zeng Dian plucked one final chord of the zither he’d been playing and put it down by his side. He replied: “My wish is very different than those of my three companions.”
Confucius said: “What harm is there in that? After all, each one is simply speaking from his heart.”
Zeng Dian said: “In late spring, after all the spring clothes have been made, I would like to go out together with five or six companions and six or seven children to bathe in the Yi River, enjoy the breeze on the Rain Dance Terrace, and then return home singing.”
Confucius let out a wistful sigh and said: “I’m with Dian!”
After the other three followers had left, Zeng Dian stayed behind and said: “What did you think of their wishes?” Confucius said: “Each was indeed speaking from his heart.”
Zeng Dian asked: “Why did you smile at Zilu?” Confucius said: “You should govern a state according to ritual, but his words showed no such restraint. That’s why I smiled.”
“But wasn’t Ran Qiu also talking about governing a state?” “Of course. Have you ever seen ‘a territory of sixty to seventy, or fifty to sixty li?’”
“And Gongxi Chi? Wasn’t he also talking about running a state as well?” “A diplomatic conference in the Grand Ancestral Temple! What could this be but an affair of state? And if Gongxi Chi were there merely to act as a junior official, who could possibly be qualified to act as the senior one?”
Analects Book 11: Links
Book 11, Chapter 1
Book 11, Chapter 8
Book 11, Chapter 10
Book 11, Chapter 11
Book 11, Chapter 26
Analects Book 12: Passages on Ritual
Book 12
Chapter 1
顏淵問仁。子曰：「克己復禮，為仁。一日克己復禮，天下歸仁焉。為仁由己，而由仁乎哉？」 顏淵曰：「請問其目？」子曰：「非禮勿視，非禮勿聽，非禮勿言，非禮勿動。」顏淵曰：「回雖不敏，請事斯語矣！」
Yan Hui asked about goodness. Confucius said: “Exercising self-discipline and returning to ritual constitute goodness. If you manage to exercise self-restraint and return to ritual for just one single day, goodness will prevail throughout the world. You can only achieve goodness through your own efforts. How can it come from anybody else?” Yan Hui said: “May I ask what specific steps I should follow?” Confucius said: “Don’t look at anything that goes against ritual; don’t listen to anything that goes against ritual; don’t say anything that goes against ritual; don’t do anything that goes against ritual.” Yan Hui said: “Although I may not be quick to understand it, with your blessing I will strive to live up to your guidance.”
Chapter 2
仲弓問仁。子曰：「出門如見大賓，使民如承大祭。己所不欲，勿施於人。在邦無怨，在家無怨。」仲弓曰：「雍雖不敏，請事斯語。」
Ran Yong asked about goodness. Confucius said: “When you’re away from home, act towards everyone as if you’re meeting an important guest. Manage people as if you’re conducting a great sacrifice. Don’t do to others what you wouldn’t want done to yourself. Allow no resentment to enter your public affairs; allow no resentment to enter your family affairs.” Ran Yong said: “Although I may not be quick to understand it, allow me to live up to your guidance.”
Chapter 5
司馬牛憂曰：「人皆有兄弟，我獨亡！」子夏曰：「商聞之矣：『死生有命，富貴在天』。君子敬而無失，與人恭而有禮；四海之內，皆兄弟也。君子何患乎無兄弟也？」
Sima Niu was full of sorrow: “All men have brothers; I alone have none.” Zixia said: “I have heard this: life and death are ordained by fate; wealth and honors are assigned by heaven. A leader always shows respect and courtesy to others. Within the four seas all men are brothers. How could a leader complain that he has no brothers?”
Chapter 15
子曰：「博學於文，約之以禮，亦可以弗畔矣夫。」
Confucius said: “If you expand your learning through culture and keep your behavior in check through ritual you’re unlikely to go wrong.”
Analects Book 12: Links
Book 12, Chapter 1
Book 12, Chapter 2
Book 12, Chapter 5
Book 12, Chapter 15
Analects Book 13: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 3
子路曰：「衛君待子而為政，子將奚先？」子曰：「必也正名乎！」子路曰：「有是哉？子之迂也！奚其正？」子曰：「野哉，由也！君子於其所不知，蓋闕如也。名不正，則言不順；言不順，則事不成；事不成，則禮樂不興；禮樂不興，則刑罰不中；刑罰不中，則民無所措手足。故君子名之必可言也，言之必可行也。君子於其言，無所茍而已矣！」
Zilu asked: “If the ruler of Wei were to entrust you with the government of his state, what would be your first priority?” Confucius said: “It most definitely would be to rectify the names.” Zilu said: “Really? Isn’t that a little strange? How would that make things right?” Confucius said: “How dense can you get! When a leader doesn’t understand what they’re talking about, they should remain silent. When the names aren’t correct, language doesn’t accord with the truth of things. When language doesn’t accord with the truth of things, nothing can be carried out successfully. When nothing can be carried out successfully, ritual and music won’t flourish. When ritual and music don’t flourish, punishments and penalties miss their mark. When punishments and penalties miss their mark, the people don’t know where to place their hands and feet. Therefore, a leader must be able to give the appropriate name to whatever they want to talk about and must also make sure they do exactly as they say. When it comes to speaking, a leader doesn’t allow any carelessness.”
Chapter 4
樊遲請學稼，子曰：「吾不如老農。」請學為圃，曰：「吾不如老圃。」樊遲出，子曰：「小人哉，樊須也！上好禮，則民莫敢不敬；上好義，則民莫敢不服；上好信，則民莫敢不用情。夫如是，則四方之民，襁負其子而至矣；焉用稼！」
Fan Chi asked to learn about cultivating grain. Confucius said: “You’d be better off asking an old farmer.” Fan Chi asked to learn about raising vegetables. Confucius said: “You’d be better off asking an old gardener.” After Fan Chi had left, Confucius said: “What a petty person! When a ruler loves ritual, the people don’t dare to be disrespectful. When a ruler loves rightness, the people don’t dare to be disobedient. When a ruler loves trustworthiness, the people don’t dare to be deceitful. If such a ruler existed, people would flock to them from everywhere with their children strapped to their backs. What need would there be to learn about farming?”
Analects Book 13: Links
Book 13, Chapter 3
Book 13, Chapter 4
Analects Book 14: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 12
子路問「成人」。子曰：「若臧武仲之知，公綽之不欲，卞莊子之勇，冉求之藝，文之以禮樂，亦可以為成人矣！」曰：「今之成人者，何必然？見利思義，見危授命，久要不忘平生之言，亦可以為成人矣！」
Zilu asked how to define a “complete person”. Confucius said: “Take someone as wise as Zang Wuzhong, as free from desire as Gongchuo, as brave as Zhuangzi of Bian, and as cultured as Ran Qiu, as well as being accomplished in ritual and music, and they may be considered a complete person.” Then he added: “But must a complete person be exactly like this today? Someone who thinks of what is right at the sight of profit, who is ready to risk their life when faced with danger, and who can endure hardship without forgetting the teachings that have guided their daily life may also be considered a complete person.”
Chapter 40
子張曰：「書云：『高宗諒陰，三年不言』何謂也？」子曰：「何必高宗？古之人皆然。君薨，百官總已以聽於冢宰三年。」
Zizhang said: “In the Book of Documents it is written: ‘When Gaozong was mourning his father, he did not speak for three years.’ What does this mean?” Confucius said: “This did not apply only to Gaozong; all the ancients did the same. When a king died, all the officials gathered together and took their orders from the chief minister for three years.”
Chapter 41
子曰：「上好禮，則民易使也。」
Confucius said: “When their rulers love ritual, the common people are easy to manage.”
Chapter 44
闕黨，童子將命。或問之曰：「益者與？」子曰：「吾見其居於位也，見其與先生並行也；非求益者也，欲速成者也。」
A boy from the village of Que came bearing a message. Someone asked about him, saying: “Is he likely to improve himself?” Confucius said: “I have noticed that he seats himself among others and walks alongside people older than himself. He is not looking to improve himself; he wants to grow up too fast.”
Analects Book 14: Links
Book 14, Chapter 12
Book 14, Chapter 40
Book 14, Chapter 41
Book 14, Chapter 44
Analects Book 15: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 1
衛靈公問陳於孔子，孔子對曰：「俎豆之事，則嘗聞之矣；軍旅之事，未之學也。」明日遂行。
Duke Ling of Wei asked Confucius about military formations. Confucius replied: “Although I have experience in handling ritual vessels, I have never studied military matters.” He left the next day.
Chapter 18
子曰：「君子義以為質，禮以行之，孫以出之，信以成之，君子哉！」
Confucius said: “A leader takes rightness as their essence, puts it into practice through ritual, manifests it through humility, and brings it to fruition through trustworthiness. This is how a leader behaves.”
Chapter 33
子曰：「知及之，仁不能守之，雖得之，必失之。知及之，仁能守之，不莊以 之，則民不敬。知及之，仁能守之，莊以 之，動之不以禮，未善也。」
Confucius said: “Power acquired through knowledge that cannot be maintained through goodness will inevitably be lost. Power acquired through knowledge and maintained through goodness will not be respected by the people if it is not exerted with dignity. Power acquired through knowledge, maintained through goodness, and exerted with dignity is still not perfect if it is not implemented in accordance with ritual.”
Chapter 42
師冕見。及階，子曰：「階也！」及席，子曰：「席也！」皆坐，子告之曰：「某在斯！某在斯！」師冕出，子張問曰：「與師言之道與？」子曰：「然，固相師之道也。」
Mian, the (blind) music master, came to visit. When he reached the steps, Confucius said: “Mind the steps.” When he reached the mat, Confucius said: “Here is the mat.” When everyone was seated, Confucius told him: “This person is here; that person is there.” After the music master had left, Zizhang asked: “Is this the way to talk to a music master?” Confucius said: “Yes, this is indeed the way to assist a music master.”
Analects Book 15: Links
Book 15, Chapter 1
Book 15, Chapter 18
Book 15, Chapter 33
Book 15, Chapter 42
Analects Book 16: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 2
孔子曰：「天下有道，則禮樂征伐自天子出；天下無道，則禮樂征伐自諸侯出。自諸侯出，蓋十世希不失矣；自大夫出，五世希不失矣。陪臣執國命，三世希不失矣。天下有道，則政不在大夫。天下有道，則庶人不議。」
Confucius said, “When the way prevails in the world, ritual, music, and punitive military campaigns are initiated by the son of the heaven. When the way does not prevail in the world, ritual, music, and punitive military campaigns are initiated by the feudal lords. When they are initiated by the feudal lords, the lords are seldom able to maintain their power for ten generations. When they are initiated by the grand families, the families are seldom able to maintain their power for five generations. When household retainers take control of the fate of the state, they are seldom able to maintain their power for three generations. When the way prevails in the world, governance does not lie in the hands of the grand officials. When the way prevails in the world, the common people do not concern themselves with governance.”
Chapter 5
孔子曰：「益者三樂，損者三樂。樂節禮樂，樂道人之善，樂多賢友，益矣。樂驕樂，樂佚遊，樂宴樂，損矣。」
Confucius said: “Three kinds of pleasure are beneficial to you; three kinds of pleasure are harmful to you. The pleasure of regulating yourself with ritual and music, the pleasure of praising the qualities of other people, and the pleasure of having many wise friends; these are all beneficial. The pleasure of wild extravagance, the pleasure of idle wandering, the pleasure of lavish feasting; these are all harmful.”
Chapter 13
陳亢問於伯魚曰：「子亦有異聞乎？」對曰：「未也。嘗獨立，鯉趨而過庭。曰：『學詩乎？』對曰：『未也。』『不學詩，無以言。』鯉退而學詩。他日，又獨立，鯉趨而過庭。曰：『學禮乎？』對曰：『未也。』『不學禮，無以立。』鯉退而學禮。聞斯二者。」陳亢退而喜曰：「問一得三，聞詩、聞禮，又聞君子之遠其子也。」
Chen Gang asked Confucius’s son Boyu: “Has your father given you any special teaching?” Boyu replied: “No, he hasn’t. Once, when he was standing on his own and I was hurrying across the courtyard, he asked me: ‘Have you studied the Book of Songs?’ I replied: ‘Not yet.’ He said: ‘If you don’t study the Book of Songs, you won’t be able to speak.’ I retired and studied the Book of Songs. On another day, when he was again standing on his own and I was hurrying across the courtyard, he asked me: ‘Have you studied ritual?’ I replied: ‘Not yet.’ He said: ‘If you don’t study ritual, you won’t be able to take your place in society.’ I retired and studied ritual. These are the two lessons I received from him.” Chen Gang left delighted and said: “I asked one thing and learned three. I learned about the Book of Songs, I learned about ritual, and I learned how a leader keeps his distance from his son.”
Analects Book 16: Links
Book 16, Chapter 2
Book 16, Chapter 5
Book 16, Chapter 13
Analects Book 17: Passages on Ritual
Chapter 1
陽貨欲見孔子，孔子不見，歸孔子豚。孔子時其亡也，而往拜之。遇諸塗。謂孔子曰：「來！予與爾言。」曰：「懷其寶而迷其邦，可謂仁乎？」曰：「不可。」「好從事而亟失時，可謂知乎？」曰：「不可。」「日月逝矣！歲不我與！」孔子曰：「諾，吾將仕矣！」
Yang Huo wanted to see Confucius, but Confucius would not see him. Yang Huo sent him a suckling pig. Confucius chose a time when Yang Huo was not at home to call on him and give his thanks but ran into him on the way. Yang Huo said to Confucius: “Come! I have something to say to you.” He continued: “Can a person be called good if they keep their talents hidden while their country has gone astray? I do not think so. Can a person be called wise if they are eager to take part in public affairs, but constantly miss the opportunity to do so? I do not think so. The days and months fly by; time is not on our side.” Confucius said: “All right, I shall take office.”
Chapter 11
子曰：「禮云禮云，玉帛云乎哉？樂云樂云，鐘鼓云乎哉？」
Confucius said: “Ritual, ritual, surely there is more to it than just jade and silk! Music, music, surely there is more to it than just bells and drums!”
Chapter 20
孺悲欲見孔子，孔子辭以疾，將命者出戶，取瑟而歌，使之聞之。
Ru Bei wanted to see Confucius. Confucius declined due to illness. As Ru Bei’s messenger was leaving, Confucius picked up his zither and sang loudly enough for him to hear.
Chapter 21
宰我問：「三年之喪，期已久矣！君子三年不為禮，禮必壞；三年不為樂，樂必崩。舊穀既沒，新穀既升；鑽燧改火，期可已矣。」子曰：「食夫稻，衣夫錦，於女安乎？」曰：「安！」「女安則為之。夫君子之居喪，食旨不甘，聞樂不樂，居處不安，故不為也。今女安，則為之。」宰我出。子曰：「予之不仁也！子生三年，然後免於父母之懷。夫三年之喪，天下之通喪也；予也，有三年之愛於其父母乎？」
Zai Yu asked: “Three years of mourning for your parents: this is a long time. If a leader does not practice ritual for three years, ritual is sure to decay; if they do not practice music for three years, music is sure to collapse. As the grain from last year’s crop is used up, grain from this year’s crop ripens, and the flint for lighting the fires is changed with each season. One year of mourning is surely enough.” Confucius said: “Would you be comfortable eating your fine food and wearing your fine clothes then?” “Absolutely.” “In that case, go ahead! When a leader is in mourning fine food is tasteless to them, music offers them no pleasure, and the comforts of home give them no peace, so they prefer to do without these pleasures. But if you think you will be able to enjoy them, go ahead.” Zai Yu left. Confucius said: “Zai Yu has no goodness! During the first three years after a child is born, they do not leave the arms of their parents. Three years of mourning is a custom that is followed throughout the world. Didn’t Zai Yu receive three years of love from his parents?”
Chapter 24
子貢曰：「君子亦有惡乎？」子曰：「有惡。惡稱人之惡者，惡居下流而訕上者，惡勇而無禮者，惡果敢而窒者。」曰：「賜也亦有惡乎？」「惡徼以為知者，惡不孫以為勇者，惡訐以為直者。」
Zigong said: “Does a leader have things that they cannot stand?” Confucius said: “Yes. They cannot stand those who point out the evils in others. They cannot stand those in inferior positions who slander their superiors. They cannot stand those whose courage is not tempered by ritual. They cannot stand those who are impulsive and stubborn.” Confucius continued. “Do you have things that you cannot stand?” “I cannot stand those who pretend to be learned by plagiarizing. I cannot stand those who pretend to be brave by acting arrogant. I cannot stand those who pretend to be frank by being malicious.”
Analects Book 17: Links
Book 17, Chapter 1
Book 17, Chapter 11
Book 17, Chapter 20
Book 17, Chapter 21
Book 17, Chapter 24
Analects Book 20: Passages on Ritual
Book 20
Chapter 3
子曰：「不知命，無以為君子也。不知禮，無以立也。不知言，無以知人也。」
Confucius said: “If you do not understand fate you cannot become a leader. If you do not understand ritual, you cannot become a complete person. If you do not understand the meaning of words, you cannot understand people.”
Analects Book 20: Links
Book 20, Chapter 3
